The Vedas (Sanskrit , "knowledge") are a large body of texts originating in Ancient India. They form the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature[1] and the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism.[2] The Four Vedas Rigveda (padapatha) manuscript in Devanagari, early 19th century The canonical division of the Vedas is fourfold (turiya) viz.,[31] 1. Rig-Veda (RV) 2. Yajur-Veda (YV, with the main division TS vs. VS) 3. Sama-Veda (SV) 4. Atharva-Veda (AV) Of these, the first three were the principal original division, also called "trayi vidya", that is, "the triple sacred science" of reciting hymns (RV), performing sacrifices (YV), and chanting (SV).[32][33] This triplicity is so introduced in the Brahmanas (ShB, ABr and others), but the Rigveda is the older work of the three from which the other two borrow, next to their own independent Yajus, sorcery and speculative mantras. Thus, the Mantras are properly of three forms: 1. Ric, which are verses of praise in metre, and intended for loud recitation; 2. Yajus, which are in prose, and intended for recitation in lower voice at sacrifices; 3. Saman, which are in metre, and intended for singing at the Soma ceremonies. The Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda are independent collections of mantras and hymns intended as manuals for the Adhvaryu, Udgatr and Brahman priests respectively. The Atharvaveda is the fourth Veda. Its status has occasionally been ambiguous, probably due to its use in sorcery and healing. However, it contains very old materials in early Vedic language. Manusmrti, which often speaks of the three Vedas, calling them trayam-brahma-sanatanam, "the triple eternal Veda". The Atharvaveda like the Rigveda, is a collection of original incantations, and other materials borrowing relatively little from the Rigveda. It has no direct relation to the solemn Shrauta sacrifices, except for the fact that the mostly silent Brahmán priest observes the procedures and uses Atharvaveda mantras to 'heal' it when mistakes have been made. Its recitation also produces long life, cures diseases, or effects the ruin of enemies. Each of the four Vedas consists of the metrical Mantra or Samhita and the prose Brahmana part, giving discussions and directions for the detail of the ceremonies at which the Mantras were to be used and explanations of the legends connected with the Mantras and rituals. Both these portions are termed shruti (which tradition says to have been heard but not composed or written down by men). Each of the four Vedas seems to have passed to numerous Shakhas or schools, giving rise to various recensions of the text. They each have an Index or Anukramani, the principal work of this kind being the general Index or Sarvanukrama?i. Rigveda Main article: Rigveda The Rig-Veda Samhita is the oldest significant existent Indian text.[34] It is a collection of 1,028 Vedic Sanskrit hymns and 10,600 verses in all, organized into ten books (Sanskrit: mandalas).[35] The hymns are dedicated to Rigvedic deities.[36] The books were composed by poets from different priestly groups over a period of some 500 years, which Avari dates as 1400 BCE to 900 BCE, if not earlier[37] According to Max Müller, based on internal evidence (philological and linguistic), the Rigveda was composed roughly between 1700–1100 BCE (the early Vedic period) in the Punjab (Sapta Sindhu) region of the Indian subcontinent.[38] Michael Witzel believes that the Rig Veda must have been composed more or less in the period 1450-1350 BCE, in the Greater Punjab, before the onset of the Iron Age.[39] There are strong linguistic and cultural similarities between the Rigveda and the early Iranian Avesta, deriving from the Proto-Indo-Iranian times, often associated with the Andronovo culture; the earliest horse-drawn chariots were found at Andronovo sites in the Sintashta-Petrovka cultural area near the Ural mountains and date to ca. 2000 BCE.[40] Yajurveda Main article: Yajurveda The Yajur-Veda ("Veda of sacrificial formulas") consists of archaic prose mantras and also in part of verses borrowed and adapted from the Rig-Veda. Its purpose was practical, in that each mantra must accompany an action in sacrifice but, unlike the Sama-Veda, it was compiled to apply to all sacrificial rites, not merely the Soma offering. There are two major recensions of this Veda known as the "Black" and "White" Yajur-Veda (Krishna and Shukla Yajur-veda respectively). The origin and meaning of these designations are not very clear. The White Yajur-Veda contains only the verses and formulas (yajus) necessary for the sacrifice, while their discussion exist in a separate work, the Shatapatha Brahmana. It differs widely from the Black Yajurveda, which incorporates such discussions in the work itself, often immediately following the verses. Of the Black Yajurveda four major recensions survive (Maitrayani, Katha, Kapisthala-Katha, Taittiriya), all showing by and large the same arrangement, but differing in many other respects, notably in the individual discussion of the rituals but also in matters of phonology, accent, grammatical forms, syntax and choice of words.[citation needed] Samaveda Main article: Samaveda The Sama-Veda (Sanskrit samaveda ) is the "Veda of melodies" or "Knowledge of melodies". The name of this Veda is from the Sanskrit word saman which means a melody applied to metrical hymn or song of praise.[41] It consists of 1549 stanzas, taken entirely (except 78) from the Rig-Veda.[42] Like the Rigvedic stanzas in the Yajurveda, the Samans have been changed and adapted for use in singing. Some of the Rig-Veda verses are repeated more than once. Including repetitions, there are a total of 1875 verses numbered in the Sama-Veda recension translated by Griffith.[43] Two major recensions remain today, the Kauthuma/Ranayaniya and the Jaiminiya. Its purpose was liturgical and practical, to serve as a songbook for the "singer" priests who took part in the liturgy. A priest who sings hymns from the Sama-Veda during a ritual is called an udgat?, a word derived from the Sanskrit root ud-gai ("to sing" or "to chant").[44] A similar word in English might be "cantor". The styles of chanting are important to the liturgical use of the verses. The hymns were to be sung according to certain fixed melodies; hence the name of the collection. Atharvaveda Main article: Atharvaveda The Artharva-Veda is the "Knowledge of the [atharvans] (and Angirasa)". The Artharva-Veda or Atharvangirasa is the text 'belonging to the Atharvan and Angirasa' poets. Apte defined an atharvan as a priest who worshipped fire and Soma.[45] However, the etymology of Atharvan is unclear, but according to Mayrhofer it is related to Avesta athravan (a?rauuan); he denies any connection with fire priests.[46] Atharvan was an ancient term for a certain Rishi even in the Rigveda. (The older secondary literature took them as priests who worshipped fire). The Atharva-Veda Sa?hita has 760 hymns, and about 160 of the hymns are in common with the Rig-Veda.[47] Most of the verses are metrical, but some sections are in prose.[48] It was compiled around 900 BCE, although some of its material may go back to the time of the Rig Veda,[49] and some parts of the Atharva-Veda are older than the Rig-Veda[50] though not in linguistic form. The Atharvana-Veda is preserved in two recensions, the Paippalada and Saunaka.[51] According to Apte it had nine schools (shakhas).[52] The Paippalada text, which exists in a Kashmir and an Orissa version, is longer than the Saunaka one; it is only partially printed in its two versions and remains largely untranslated. Unlike the other three Vedas, the Atharvana-Veda has less connection with sacrifice.[53][54] Its first part consists chiefly of spells and incantations, concerned with protection against demons and disaster, spells for the healing of diseases, for long life and for various desires or aims in life.[55][56] The second part of the text contains speculative and philosophical hymns. R. C. Zaehner notes that: "The latest of the four Vedas, the Atharva-Veda, is, as we have seen, largely composed of magical texts and charms, but here and there we find cosmological hymns which anticipate the Upanishads, -- hymns to Skambha, the 'Support', who is seen as the first principle which is both the material and efficient cause of the universe, to Prana, the 'Breath of Life', to Vac, the 'Word', and so on.[57] In its third section, the Atharvaveda contains Mantras used in marriage and death rituals, as well as those for kingship, female rivals and the Vratya (in Brahmana style prose). Gavin Flood discusses the relatively late acceptance of the Atharva-Veda as follows: "There were originally only three priests associated with the first three Sa?hitas, for the Brahman as overseer of the rites does not appear in the ?g Veda and is only incorporated later, thereby showing the acceptance of the Atharva Veda, which had been somewhat distinct from the other Sa?hitas and identified with the lower social strata, as being of equal standing with the other texts."[58]